History of African American Music Essay

The result is usually described as â€Å"soul music,† a mix of blues, rhythm and blues, and gospel voices. But, if Ray Charles was one of the â€Å"originators† of soul music, â€Å"Aretha Franklin reshaped it,† by bringing even more of her gospel background to bear on secular love songs (Wade and Picardie 27). By combining popular elements with her stunning voice, her great musicianship, and the feeling for a song that she learned in church, Aretha became one of the greatest soul singers to ever live. Aretha Franklin is a well-known pop, R&B, and gospel singer. She has been nicknamed â€Å"The Queen of Soul† and is an internationally known artist and a symbol of pride in the African American community. Her popularity soared in 1967 when she released an album containing songs â€Å"I Never Loved a Man†, â€Å"Respect†, and â€Å"Baby I Love You. † Throughout her career she has achieved fifteen Grammy Awards, Lifetime Achievement Award, National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences Legend Awards, and many Grammy Hall of Fame Awards. In 1987 she became the first woman inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame. Time magazine chose her as one of the most influential artists and entertainers of the 20th century. She sang at Dr. Martin Luther King’s funeral and at former President Bill Clinton’s inaugural party. Although she has all these accomplishments and awards there are other reasons that have driven Franklin to fame and landed her on the front cover of Time magazine on June 28, 1968. The reasons I believe allowed Aretha Franklin to become so successful are the following: Her family’s involvement with religion, the inspiring people that surrounded her, and the pain she suffered. It is clear that because her family’s involvement with religion would be one reason why Aretha Franklin became as famous as a Gospel singer. Some people would say that her love for religion is unbelievable, but after researching her childhood it is very believable. Her father, Reverend Clarence LaVaugh Franklin lived in Shelby Mississippi and preached while living the life of a sharecropper. As soon as he had enough money, he would move to Memphis, Tennessee to become a pastor of two churches. After a couple of years he attended LeMoyne College, and he studied Education and English Literature. With his education he was able to bring a more liberal view to his preaching’s. Then he moved the family to Buffalo, New York. When he had the resources, he moved the family again to Detroit, Michigan were he settled and became a pastor of a churched called New Bethel Baptist Church. He quickly became one of the most famous pastors in the city of Detroit. Aretha was two years old when they made their final move, she would grow up here and grab the emotion of Church and incorporate it into her music. Aretha Franklin’s mom, Barbara V. Skaggers, served as choir director and pianist. Aretha describes her mom as â€Å"a Superb singer, her voice was clear and distinctive†. (Franklin and Ritz, 6) Her parents taught her how to sing with great pride. This was a big issue because the late ‘50s, early ‘60s was a time of turmoil for African Americans. Her father especially tried to instill pride into her. He was a Civil Rights activist and he was a close colleague with Dr. Martin Luther King. With her parents keeping her involved in Church she was bound to become one of the world’s greatest singers. At around age 12, the father recognized Aretha’s talent as a singer. So he took her on the road with his traveling gospel show. This was important because it shows the kind of support Aretha received from her family. It was said, â€Å"She was a spellbinding performer at the age of fourteen. † (Franklin, 3) So her family really supported and inspired her to become a gospel singer. What also made her a great artist was that she had inspiring people all around her. Aretha grew up in Detroit which at the time was a rousing city or a city of hope for the African Americans running away from the brutality of the South. Though Detroit still had its problems such as race riots, many famous musicians grew up there. Also since New Bethel Baptist Church was so prominent, many musicians and political leaders used Reverend Franklin’s pulpit as a platform to sing or speak to the Black’s of Detroit. Aretha was introduced to classical music by Smokey Robinson’s sister Sylvia Burston. She listened to well known local DJ’s like Ruth Brown and Senator Brystal Brown. When Aretha was younger, she would ride her bike to the local park, and on her way home she would stop by a night club where you could here B. B. King perform. She says, â€Å"You could hear the soft sound of his guitar all the way to the sidewalk (Franklin and Ritz, 22). National and local political leaders would give there speeches. Speakers such as Dr. Adam Clayton Powell, Sr. , Dr. Martin Luther King, and Reverend Jesse Jackson would speak powerfully to the church. Aretha was directly influenced by Miriam Anderson, Sammy Davis, and Roy Wilkins. Detroit was overflowing with talent and speakers which I believe also contributed to Aretha’s success. Pain was probably what really drove Aretha Franklin’s success. As stated before, Franklin’s family was highly religious and was continually involved in the Church. But that doesn’t mean that she hadn’t been through a tremendous amount of pain. Early in life her mother and father got a divorce. The father was better suitable to raise Aretha and her four Siblings. The mother moved to Buffalo, New York and tried to make regular visits to see her children. She was supported her children in the best way she could, but when Aretha needed her, she still was not reachable. Matters became worst a few years later when Aretha’s mom dies of a stroke. Aretha described her mom by saying â€Å"she was the absolute lady† (Smith, 3). At age 15 she had her first child and two years later another would come. But Aretha still wanted to go out and be with friends, so her grandmother usually babysat for her periodically. In a time when Black Activism, Feminism, and Sexual Liberation were high, she needed to provide for herself. So when Aretha was old enough and was ready to start performing, she hired a man named Ted White to be her manager. He later became her husband. In the future she would divorce him for a famous actor which would end in divorce, too. Even though in 1968 to 1969, Franklin’s career was rising rapidly. She was still described by her Producer Jerry Wexler as â€Å"a person whose depressions runs deeper than the sea† (Ritchie Unterberger, 3). Then one of Franklin’s highest admirers, gospel giant Mahalia Jackson died. Right after her death a extremely emotional gospel album was released my Aretha â€Å"Amazing Grace† This record was considered to be one of the most emotional records of its time. Much of the pain that Aretha suffered was not really publicized, but still it had to be one of the reasons for her to have such a powerful voice. Aretha Franklin was a successful artist and still inspires musicians today. Her voice is still described as incredible. She has all the awards that she needs to show her talent. Works cited Franklin, Aretha, and David Ritz. Aretha: From These Roots. New York: Villard, 1999. Print. Carroll, Jillian. Aretha Franklin. Chicago: Raintree, 2004. Print

Chemistry IA: Electrolysis of Metal Sulphate solutions Essay

Introduction Electrolysis is the chemical decomposition of a compound by applying an electric current through a solution containing ions. Electrolytes are required to conduct electricity. They must be dissolved in water or in molten state for the electrolytes to conduct because then, the ions are free to move allowing the solution to be electrolyzed.[1] In electrolysis, reduction happens at the cathode whilst oxidation happens at the anode. Reduction is the loss of electrons and oxidation is the gain of electrons. Research Question In this experiment, I will be electrolyzing nickel sulphate (NiSO4) solution. To further explain the aim of this experiment, I have formulated a research question: â€Å"How does changing the current affect the mass of nickel deposited at the cathode in the electrolysis of nickel sulphate?† Hypothesis I predict that as the electrical charge increases, the mass of nickel deposited at the cathode after electrolysis will also increase. Faraday’s law of electrolysis, which investigates the quantitative relationship on electrochemical, can support this. Faraday’s law states, â€Å"The amount of the substance produced by current at an electrode is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity used†.[2] During this electrolysis experiment, the aqueous solution of Nickel Sulphate will transfer Nickel from the anode to the cathode. Therefore indicating that the nickel sulphate solution is ionised by the electric current and dissociated into nickel ions and sulphate ions. This can be represented in a chemical equation: NiSO4 à ¯ Ni2+ + SO42- At the cathode, positively charged nickel ions are formed there and Ni2+ ions are reduced to Ni by gaining two electrons: Ni2+ + 2e à ¯ Ni At the anode, Ni is oxidised into Ni2+ by dissolving and going into the nickel sulphate solution and finally depositing nickel at the cathode: Ni à ¯ Ni2+ + 2e When the electrolysis circuit has electricity flowing, the nickel ions will float towards the electrode. Therefore, when the current is increased, the nickel ions flow faster and reaching the cathode faster. So there will be more nickel deposited as the rate of electrolysis is increased. Independent and Dependent Variables Variable measured Method of measuring variable Independent variable Magnitude of current flowing into the electrolytes (A) The 5 values I will use for current flowing into the electrolytes will be: 0.5 amps 1.0 amps 1.5 amps 2.0amps 2.5 amps To vary the values of current, a variable resistor will need to be used in the ciruit to control the flow of current. The amps values can be determined using an ammeter, which is also attached to the electrolysis circuit. Dependent variable Mass of Nickel (g) The mass of nickel deposited at the cathode after electrolysis will be measured for results. This will be determined by weighing the nickel electrodes before the experiment and after electrolysis. For this, a electronic balance will be used to weigh them. Controlled Variables Variable measured Method of measuring variable Controlled variables Temperature ( °C) The entire experiment will be done in room temperature of around 24 °C to ensure that the temperature for each trial will be the same. The temperature will be measured using a thermometer. Concentration of solution (moldm-3) The concentration of nickel sulphate needs to be kept constant at 1 moldm-3. This is because the same concentration will allow the number of ions in the solution to be the same, thus the number of collisions during the electrolysis will be kept the same. Volume of solution (cm3) The volume of nickel sulphate for each trial will be kept at 100cm3. Measuring cylinders will be used for accurate measurement. Time (min) The timing for the experiment needs to be controlled very carefully to ensure the amount of current passing the electrolytic cell will have the same amount of time. For each trial, it will run for 2 minutes. This will be determined using a stopwatch. Voltage (V) To keep the voltage of this experiment constant set at 5V, we only need to switch the power pack to 5V and keep it there. Distance between electrodes (mm) The distance between the nickel electrodes needs to be kept constant so it doesn’t affect the amount of current passing. The distance will be kept at 40mm and this will be measured using a ruler. Surface of electrodes Before using the electrodes in the experiment, sand paper will be used to remove the oxide layer on the sheet of nickel. This will ensure the surface of all electrodes to be the same and will have the same surface for ions to attach to. Size of electrodes The electrodes need to be kept the same size to ensure there will be an equal surface area for nickel to deposit on. The nickel sheet electrodes will be 10mm by 50mm long. This is measured using a ruler. Equipment Equipment such as measuring cylinders, power packs, wires will need to be the same. This is because different equipment would have different uncertainties, which may affect the final readings of the experiment. Equipment Thermometer NiSO4 solution Nickel electrodes 100ml beaker Resistor Power pack Ammeter Diagram Safety considerations Long hair needs to be tied back Appropriate footwear worn for laboratory experiments Safety goggles should be warn to prevent harmful chemicals from harming your eyes Don’t touch the electric terminals when the electricity is on to prevent shocks Reliable results To ensure accurate and reliable results, I will be undergoing 3 trials for each experiment. This is so I will then be able to calculate an average, thus my data will be more reliable. I will also maintain all the controlled variables and only varying the input of current. Method Set up the apparatus and circuit as shown in the diagram Fill a beaker with 100cm3 of nickel sulphate Weigh the cathode using the electronic balance and record the initial mass of it File the Nickel electrodes using sandpaper to remove any impurities Place each electrode pair into the beaker with nickel sulphate Attach the electrodes to opposite sites of the beaker (measure with a ruler the distance between, it should be around 4cm) by bending the electrodes it Adjust the current to 0.5 amps using the variable resistor Connect the electrolytes into the circuit by clipping on the wires and turn the power pack on Using the stopwatch, time for 2 minutes whilst looking at the ammeter to ensure the current remains the same After 2 minutes, turn the power pack off and take the cathode out. Wash the cathode carefully with distilled water and dry it with a paper towel Weigh the cathode again using the electronic balance and record the mass Repeat the steps 1 to 12 again for 1 amps, 1.5 amps, 2 amps and 2.5 amps Initial Mass of Cathode ( ±0.001g) Final Mass of Cathode ( ±0.001g) Change in mass ( ±0.001g) Average mass gained ( ±0.002 g) Data table The table above is a draft up of the raw data results table I will be using for my final readings from the experiment. It includes columns with headings, 3 trials, units and uncertainties and the average mass gained from the whole experiment. From these results, I can also draw a graph to easier represent the data and can also spot patterns or anomalous data that occur in the results. The actual theoretical mass of nickel deposited at the cathode can also be calculated with a few equations: Charge (C)= Current (A) x Time (s) Moles of electrons= Charge (C)/ 96500 Moles of Nickel= moles of electrons/2 Mass= moles x RAM The total percentage of random uncertainty can be calculated for my final answer in order to determine whether my experiment was fully successful and that the results are accurate. Wires Crocodile clips Stopwatch Sandpaper Ruler Electronic balance ________________ [1] Neuss, Geoffrey. IB Study Guide: Chemistry: Study Guide. [s.l.]: Oxford UP, 2007. Print. [2] â€Å"Faraday’s laws of electrolysis†. Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica. Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Online. Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 04 Oct. 2012 .

Introduction to comparative politics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Introduction to comparative politics - Essay Example The electoral process is the system used to nominate candidates, creating ballots, and polling the public. The electoral process is the mechanics and body of laws that govern the election. The electoral system is not the same as the electoral process. The electoral system is the "†¦means by which votes are translated into seats in the process of electing politicians into office" (Farrell 4). The United States has a two-party system, which is non-proportional and tends to provide continuity and stability at the cost of minority representation. This has tended to minimize any impact that minority opinions have on legislation. Ecuador has a multi-party system that has worked towards a proportional system where all viewpoints and parties are represented based on their ability to get votes. However, this is an oversimplification as Ecuador has made some major changes in their system in recent years and is actually a mixed system. The proportional system of Ecuador has insured minorit y representation, but has also complicated the legislative process. In both Ecuador and the United States, the highest elected position in the land is the presidency, but are elected by systems that are considerably different. In the United States, the president is elected by an electoral system where each state is given a number of votes based on their population. In each state it is a winner take all system and the candidate with the most votes gets the electoral votes of that state. This has had the effect of creating two parties, of relatively equal strength, that serve as a representative for ideas and change. It has virtually eliminated any opportunity of a third party or minority party candidates due to the expense and almost certain defeat. It has also created an electoral system where voting blocs and coalitions are of critical importance. In addition, the winner

Two Page Overview of Three Companies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Two Page Overview of Three Companies - Essay Example The first real bookstore of Barnes & Noble was actually opened by Charles’ son named William who partnered with a gentleman named Clifford Noble thus the origin of the name Barnes & Noble. The bookstore was opened in the year 1917 in New York City, and has grown to the illustrious business it is now over the years. Barnes & Noble is known for its upscale retail shops that are usually accompanied with cafes serving starbucks coffee among other products. Although it is officially known as a retail bookstore, this is not the only product that they have to offer, and one can find other items such as magazines, comics, newspapers as well as music within the store’s retail outlets. The company currently has over 600 stores under its flagship up to date excluding the over 600 college stores it operates as well (Barnes & Noble Inc). Amazon.com is a multinational company that operates through electric commerce through its website that has been popularized around the world. It is believed to be the largest online business in the world and has a consumer base that is located all over the world. It headquarters are located in Seattle, Washington and it sells a large number of items on its online stores. Since it is an online retail store, its expansion cannot be seen on a physical scale but can be pointed out through the different retail websites that it has developed for different countries such as Canada, Italy, Germany, and the United States among others. It also has plans to set up separate online retail stores for more countries including Brazil, Sweden and the Netherlands. The company was founded by a man call Jeff Bezos in the year 1994, but it was released onto the website community as amazon.com in 1995. The company sells everything from electronic products, toys, books to name but a few and has recently b egan producing its own electronic products such as the Kindle e book reader and tablet computer known as Kindle Fire.

Bret Hart Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Bret Hart - Essay Example This essay will flesh out the thesis that in Harte’s stories, there is manifest celebration of the virtues of the social underclass. Where literature was previously the preserve of the privileged and addressed to the same privileged audience, Harte broke this trend, and courageously at that, and highlighted the depth, effervescence and humanity of those in the fringes of society. Tennessee’s Partner is a great short story. At its core is the theme of friendship, if not unconditional love. Tennessee’s Partner (who was never referred by his actual name through the entire story) displays such an unconditional acceptance of his friend Tennessee that he soon withers and dies upon the latter’s execution. Even when his wife runs away with Tennessee, his partner doesn’t try to harm him. To the contrary, he welcomes him back home in all cordiality. This is all the more remarkable when one considers the livelihoods of these two characters. They are both petty criminals, often committing offenses against the law. It is natural to expect loose codes of friendship and loyalty among people who are considered criminals. Yet Tennessee’s Partner shows such dedication toward the wellbeing of his friend. In what is a brilliant symbolic touch, the very naming of the story as Tennessee’s Partner indicates the strength of unity of identit y of these two loyal friends. The reference to an individual solely through his friend’s name is a statement of the strong intertwinement of their two identities. Similarly, consistent with Harte’s reputation of being a brave writer who pushed the frontiers of social sensibility, there are sufficient hints at a homosexual relationship between the two lead characters. Perhaps fearing public outrage (as homosexuality was taboo during Harte’s era) the author might have only conveyed the intimate nature of their relationship via indirect literary means. Another way of looking at this is that Harte has

Animal rights and Nazi in Germany Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Animal rights and Nazi in Germany - Essay Example Vivisection was first banned in Nazi Germany. Immediately after the Nazis took power, regulation on animal protection was passed. This was followed by regulation of the slaughter of poikilotherms. The prime minister of Prussia, Goring announced an end to suffering and unbearable torture in animal experiments. He threatened that those who continue to treat animals as inanimate property would end up in concentration camps (Sax, 2000). Hermann Goring also banned animal trapping and made sweeping restrictions on hunting and shoeing of horses. Boiling of crabs and lobsters was also regulated. On one occasion, a fisherman was taken to a concentration camp for cutting up a bait frog. In 1933, Reich animal protection act was enacted to protect animals. The law prohibited the use of animals in film making, forceful feeding of fowls and tearing up the thighs of frogs which are alive. This was followed by enactment of a decree by Prussian ministry of education which facilitated education on animal protection. Enforcement became a challenge causing the regulations to become weak. Some laws were revised, and later many lax provisions were

Higher Order Thinking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Higher Order Thinking - Essay Example The three lowest levels of taxonomy are knowledge, understanding and application. Three highest levels are analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Analysis has to do with figuring out something on your own, i.e., an individual cannot be just repeating what he reads or hears. It is seeing how something works. An individual discerns what is connected to what. A student gets at why something is happening. During synthesis process, iIf analysis is taking things apart to see what makes them tick, synthesis is putting things together. Synthesis is solving a problem, making something whole out of a bunch of pieces nobody told you how to put together, or creating or devising something (Bloom, 1956). Evaluation is deciding on your own, and in an informed way, whether something is preferable; whether it has merit or worth; or whether it is morally right, just, or fair. Personal Meaning is reflection on the personal significance, consequence, or implication of some object of concern. It is importan t to help students recognize that all concepts are in some way related to one another. This is one reason concept mapping can be a very powerful evaluation tool. The main limitation of Bloom’s taxonomy is that it is not a strategy but a model which explains main thinking skills. It does not help to solve problems and develop effective critical thinking skills. Bloom explains some ideas and the concept of thinking but he does not explain how this model can be and should be applied to real world situations. His main works on taxonomy are Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Cognitive Dimension (1956). Another model of high order thinking was developed by Robert Marzano. Marzano adopted Bloom's taxonomy but added new characteristics to the model. This model consists of 8 characteristics: focusing, information gathering, remembering, organizing, analyzing, generating, integrating, evaluating. The ideology of Marzano is based on the idea that: "When content is new, students must be guided in relating the new knowledge to what they already know, organizing and then using that new knowledge. Knowledge can be of two types: Declarative (i.e., attributes, rules) or procedural (skills and processes). Items of this type are factual and content-specific" (Marzano 1995, p. 87). The main works by Marzano are Dimensions of thinking : a framework for curriculum and instruction (1988), Cultivating thinking in English and the language arts (1991), The systematic identification and articulation of content standards and benchmarks (1995). The most recent model based on Bloom's taxonomy is Anderson/Krathwohl mode (2000). According to this model, the following levels of thinking exist: (1) remembering: Retrieving, recalling, or recognizing, (2) understanding, (3) applying, (4) analyzing, (5) evaluating, (6) creating. The advantage of this model is that there isare student choice, exploration, or creative challenge. There is opportunity for students to collaborate, develop facility with language, and work with ideas. There is chance for students to write or say what they deeply care about. In sum, classrooms are all too teacher dominated, mechanical, and pedestrian for my blood. Whatever gains may result from mastery learning--and, remember the last section, they are significant--too often they are purchased at the expense of pointing us away from what really matters in education, that students learn how to take charge of their own learning and growth and empower themselves to live freely. The main problem describes the main stages of thinking but tells little about real life application and connections between these stages (Dettmer, 2006). In spite of limitations and weaknesses these models become a core of modern education helping teachers to construct tests

An analysis of the main character Lt. Henry in A Farewell to Arms Essay

An analysis of the main character Lt. Henry in A Farewell to Arms - Essay Example Lieutenant Frederic Henry is a young American who feels a strong obligation to serving the Italian army, but seldom finds himself without enjoyment. He interprets himself as a man of duty. The experience on the battlefront does not modify his self belief or feeing of honor; nor does he expect any praise for his services as a soldier. During duties in the war, Henry is seriously wounded on the battlefield and sent to the hospital in Milan for knee operation. His friend Rinaldi criticizes him for his injury and the medals of distinction that Henry may receive. Rinaldi stated, â€Å"You will be decorated. They want to get you the medaglia d’argento but perhaps they can get only the bronze.† Henry said, â€Å"What for?† Rinaldi replied, â€Å"Because you are gravely wounded†¦. Did you do any heroic act?† Henry’s frustration with his friend insisting on lobbying for a medal goes without notice, â€Å"No†¦ I was blown up while we were eating ch eese† (63). This clearly shows how Henry distances himself from nonfigurative thinking as faith, honor, and patriotism and also displays the spirit of his personality. During his recovery in the hospital, he feels very fortunate that Miss Barkley is transferred to Milan, and allowed to be by his side. During this time of healing, Henry and Catherine’s love blossoms causing him to stay with her and not return to battle. Catherine’s feelings are so strong for Henry that she considers their relationship to be a feeling above all belief, â€Å"You see, darling, it would mean everything to me if I had any religion. But I haven’t any religion†¦ You’re my religion; you’re all I’ve got† (116). This relationship is seemed to be surprising for the fact he barely knew her and much like his friend, Rinaldi, who forever longed for a night’s simple pleasures. Unaccustomed to such feeling of love and desire, Henry realizes that this new feeling is

Cape Breton Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Cape Breton - Research Paper Example One has to plan a comprehensive excursion in order to truly enjoy the drive around Cape Breton. The trail, according to locals, loops around the Cape Island. It further cuts across the island, from the top, following the islands western and eastern coastlines. Most scenic route is following the clockwise direction of the trail. Drivers and passengers who are uncomfortable with driving close to steep slopes often use this direction. This ‘inside lane’, as it is commonly known, gives tourists the pleasure of viewing the full extent of the Cape Breton Highlands National Park. The other direction, counter-clockwise, gives tourists the opportunity of viewing the spectacular ocean vistas on the trail’s path. Many do not favour this direction; it is often left to the brave drivers and tourists who dislike slow traffic. The Cabot trail excursion is fulfilling to say the least. During our trip, we experienced memorable autumnal weather and an eye-catching coastline. The fall colours provided an almost perfect backdrop to the inlets and lakes. The trail was paused regularly by the various stopping points that gave us the opportunity of taking photos, like the one above. The anticlockwise, despite not being favoured, is the best route to experience the beauty of the trail. In my opinion, the ride from Baddeck to Cheticamp is the best as it gives one a once in a lifetime opportunity to view the magnificent scenery. The Destination Cape Breton brand is ‘My Heart will never leave’ and the photo captures this brand to the letter. The experience, that is Cape Breton, stays permanently with anyone who visits the place. The destination resonates with all tourists who visit the beautiful island. Despite its beautiful scenery, it has fewer tourists compared to other tourist attractions in Northern America. Cape Breton is more ample, in terms of sites and scenery, compared to other tourist attraction sites. In

Decision making Essay Example for Free

Decision making Essay SLIDE 1 – INTRODUCTORY SLIDE Ethical theories provide part of the decision-making foundation for Decision Making When Ethics Are In Play because these theories represent the viewpoints from which individuals seek guidance as they make decisions. Each theory emphasizes different points – a different decision-making style or a decision rule—such as predicting the outcome and following one’s duties to others in order to reach what the individual considers an ethically correct decision. In order to understand ethical decision making, it is important for students to realize that not everyone makes decisions in the same way, using the same information, employing the same decision rules. In order to further understand ethical theory, there must be some understanding of a common set of goals that decision makers seek to achieve in order to be successful. Four of these goals include beneficence, least harm, respect for autonomy, and justice. SLIDE 2 ETHICAL PRINCIPLES Beneficence The principle of beneficence guides the decision maker to do what is right and good. This priority to â€Å"do good† makes an ethical perspective and possible solution to an ethical dilemma acceptable. This principle is also related to the principle of utility, which states that we should attempt to generate the largest ratio of good over evil possible in the world. This principle stipulates that ethical theories should strive to achieve the greatest amount of good because people benefit from the most good. This principle is mainly associated with the utilitarian ethical theory discussed later in this set of notes. Least Harm Similar to beneficence, least harm deals with situations in which no choice appears beneficial. In such cases, decision makers seek to choose to do the least harm possible and to do harm to the fewest people. Students might argue that people have a greater responsibility to â€Å"do no harm† than to take steps to benefit others. For example, a student has a larger responsibility to simply walk past a teacher in the hallway rather than to make derogatory remarks about that teacher as he/she walks past even though the student had failed that teacher’s class. Respect for Autonomy This principle states that decision making should focus on allowing people to be autonomous—to be able to make decisions that apply to their lives. Thus, people should have control over their lives as much as possible because they are the only people who completely understand their chosen type of lifestyle. Ask students if they agree. Are there limits to autonomy? Each individual deserves respect because only he/she has had those exact life experiences and understands his emotions, motivations, and physical capabilities in such an intimate manner. In essence, this ethical principle is an extension of the ethical principle of beneficence because a person who is independent usually prefers to have control over his life experiences in order to obtain the lifestyle that he/she enjoys. Justice The justice ethical principle states that decision makers should focus on actions that are fair to those involved. This means that ethical decisions should be consistent with the ethical theory unless extenuating circumstances that can be justified exist in the case. This also means that cases with extenuating circumstances must contain a significant and vital difference from similar cases that justify the inconsistent decision. Ask students if they describe what extenuating circumstances might be. Ethical Theories By Larry Chonko, Ph. D. The University of Texas at Arlington. NOTES: ___________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________ ________ 1 presents SLIDE 3 – FORMS OF ETHICAL THEORIES For individuals, the ethical theory they employ for decision making guidance emphasizes aspects of an ethical dilemma important to them and leads them to the most ethically correct resolution according to the guidelines within the ethical theory itself. Four broad categories of ethical theory include deontology, utilitarianism, rights, and virtues. Deontology The deontological class of ethical theories states that people should adhere to their obligations and duties when engaged in decision making when ethics are in play. This means that a person will follow his or her obligations to another individual or society because upholding one’s duty is what is considered ethically correct. For instance, a deontologist will always keep his promises to a friend and will follow the law. A person who adheres to deontological theory will produce very consistent decisions since they will be based on the individual’s set duties. Deontology contains many positive attributes, but it also contains flaws. One flaw is that there is no rationale or logical basis for deciding an individual’s duties. For instance, a businessperson may decide that it is his/her duty to always be on time to meetings. Although this appears to be something good, we do not know why the person chose to make this his duty. Ask students what reasons they might provide for this behavior. Sometimes, a person’s duties are in conflict. For instance, if the business person who must be on time to meetings is running late, how is he/she supposed to drive? Is speeding breaking his/her duty to society to uphold the law, or is the businessperson supposed to arrive at the meeting late, not fulfilling the duty to be on time? Ask students how they would rectify the conflicting obligations to arrive at an a clear ethically-correct resolution. Also ask students to bring into play the consideration of the welfare of others as a result of the business person’s decision. Utilitarianism Utilitarian ethical theories are based on one’s ability to predict the consequences of an action. To a utilitarian, the choice that yields the greatest benefit to the most people is the one that is ethically correct. There are two types of utilitarianism, act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism subscribes precisely to the definition of utilitarianism—a person performs the acts that benefit the most people, regardless of personal feelings or the societal constraints such as laws. Rule utilitarianism takes into account the law and is concerned with fairness. A rule utilitarian seeks to benefit the most people but through the fairest and most just means available. Therefore, added benefits of rule utilitarianism are that it values justice and includes beneficence at the same time. Both act and rule utilitarianism have disadvantages. Although people can use their life experiences to attempt to predict outcomes, no one can be certain that his/her predictions will be accurate. Uncertainty can lead to unexpected results making the utilitarian decision maker appear unethical as time passes, as the choice made did not benefit the most people as predicted. Another assumption that a utilitarian decision maker must make concerns his/her ability to compare the various types of consequences against each other on a similar scale. But, comparing material gains, such as money, against intangible gains, such as happiness, is very difficult since their qualities differ to such a large extent. An act utilitarian decision maker is concerned with achieving the maximum good. Thus, one individual’s rights may be infringed upon in order to benefit a greater number of people. In other words, act utilitarianism is not always concerned with justice, beneficence or autonomy for an individual if oppressing the individual leads to the solution that benefits a majority of people. Ethical Theories By Larry Chonko, Ph. D. The University of Texas at Arlington NOTES: ___________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ 2 presents Ethical Theories By Larry Chonko, Ph. D. The University of Texas at Arlington Still another source of challenge with act utilitarian decision makers occurs when an individual faces one set of variable conditions and then suddenly experiences changes in those conditions. The change in conditions may lead to a change in the original decision—being be nice to someone one moment and then dislike them the next moment because the situation has changed, and liking the person is no longer beneficial to the most people. In rule utilitarianism, there is the possibility of conflicting rules. Recall the example of the business person running late for a meeting. Suppose the business person happens to be the CEO, who may believe that it is ethically correct to arrive at important meetings on time as the members of the company will benefit from this decision. The CEO may encounter conflicting ideas about what is ethically correct if he/she is running late. Yet, the CEO believes that he/she should follow the law because this benefits society. Simultaneously, he/she believes that it is ethically correct to be on time for his meeting because it is a meeting that also benefits the society. There appears to be no ethically correct answer for this scenario. Rights In ethical theories based on rights, the rights established by a society are protected and given the highest priority. Rights are considered to be ethically correct and valid since a large population endorses them. Individuals may also bestow rights upon others if they have the ability and resources to do so. For example, a person may say that her friend may borrow her laptop for the afternoon. The friend who was given the ability to borrow the laptop now has a right to the laptop in the afternoon. A major complication of this theory on a larger scale is that one must decipher what the characteristics of a right are in a society. The society has to determine what rights it wants to uphold and give to its citizens. In order for a society to determine what rights it wants to enact, it must decide what the society’s goals and ethical priorities are. Therefore, in order for the rights theory to be useful, it must be used in conjunction with another ethical theory that will consistently explain the goals of the society. For example in America people have the right to choose their religion because this right is upheld in the Constitution. One of the goals of the Founding Fathers’ of America was to uphold this right to freedom of religion. Virtue The virtue ethical theory judges a person by his/her character rather than by an action that may deviate from his/her normal behavior. It takes the person’s morals, reputation, and motivation into account when rating an unusual and irregular behavior that is considered unethical. For instance, if a person plagiarized a passage that was later detected by a peer, the peer who knows the person well will understand the person’s character and will judge the friend accordingly. If the plagiarizer normally follows the rules and has good standing amongst his colleagues, the peer who encounters the plagiarized passage may be able to judge his friend more leniently. Perhaps the researcher had a late night and simply forgot to credit his or her source appropriately. Conversely, a person who has a reputation for academic misconduct is more likely to be judged harshly for plagiarizing because of his/her consistent past of unethical behavior. One weakness of virtue ethical theory is that it does not take into consideration a person’s change in moral character. For example, a scientist who may have made mistakes in the past may honestly have the same late night story as the scientist in good standing. Neither of these scientists intentionally plagiarized, but the act was still committed. On the other hand, a researcher may have a sudden change from moral to immoral character may go unnoticed until a significant amount of evidence mounts up against him/her. NOTES: ___________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________ ________ 3 presents SLIDES 4-6 SELECTED PRINCIPLES OF ETHICAL CONDUCT When individuals find themselves in a decision-making situation when ethics are in play, there are a variety of ethical theories (decision rules) which provide decision-making guidance as individuals strive to make ethically correct answers. Each ethical theory attempts to adhere to the ethical principles that lead to success when trying to reach the best decision. Most individuals adopt a preferred decision-making style (e. g. do unto others ), but might adjust it depending on decision circumstances. As decision makers, they soon discover that others have adopted different decision rules. Thus, a team of decision makers must first understand the decision-making styles and decision rules of all members of the team. SLIDES 7 – 9 A TAXONOMY OF ETHICAL TYPES There are three different approaches to examining how ethical theories (differing decisionmaking styles and decision rules) impact decision making. The first group, entitled, â€Å"Selected Principles of Ethical Conduct,† present different ethical theories or decision making styles. The second group, entitled â€Å"A Taxonomy of Ethical Types† also provides a look at different decision-making styles, presenting some of the positives and negatives associated with each. The third group, entitled â€Å"Models of Personal and Organizational Development,† also deals with decision-making styles but presents them in a hierarchy from simple to more sophisticated. SLIDES 10-12 MODELS OF PERSONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT From Cognitive Moral Development (as espoused by Lawrence Kohlberg in The Philosophy of Moral Development: Moral Stages and the Idea of Justice, 1981, HarperCollins Publishers) Cognitive Moral Development asserts that ethics education is possible. Just as people develop mentally, physically, and emotionally, they develop a moral cognizance. Using critical thinking and decision-making tactics such as the Socratic method, people can solve their ethical dilemmas. Kohlberg taught that there were six stages of ethical thinking, each stage being of greater maturity than the previous one. By delineating these levels, we are allowed to know and test our own thinking and decision making. This helps individuals know themselves better and challenges them to move on to a higher level of thinking. To examine how different ethical theories (decision-making styles and decision rules enter into team decision making, the following questions are presented. 1. Ask students to play the role of a hospital administrator who has been asked to set up an Ethics Task Force in the hospital. The task force will deal with ethical dilemmas that may confront hospital staff and advise in establishing ethical guidelines for the treatment of patients. (a) What kind of persons would you look for to fill this position? What values would you want them to hold? What types of ethical sensitivity would you be looking for? (b) What basic ethical principles would you advise the task force to follow? 2. Now tell students they are charged with the same task described in Question #1, but this time for a market research firm instead of a hospital. What would the differences be? If there are any differences, what conclusions would you draw about the way we define the moral ballpark? 3. An undergraduate student published A Students’ Guide to Good Grades 10. This book was written to help students learn how to cheat. You can ask students many questions about this: What ethical issues do you see associated with publishing such a book? Should the campus bookstore carry it? Why or why not? Should the campus Ethical Theories By Larry Chonko, Ph. D. The University of Texas at Arlington. NOTES: ___________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________ ________ 4 presents Ethical Theories By Larry Chonko, Ph. D. The University of Texas at Arlington newspaper carry advertisements for the book? Similarly, should the campus newspaper carry advertisements for companies that will write students’ research papers for them? Again, what are the relevant ethical considerations here? Are these issues in the ethical ballpark? Why or why not? What is the ethical issue that you are most undecided about? Describe the pros and cons relating to this issue. How do you go about arriving at a decision when it is unavoidable? NOTES: ___________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________ ________ 5

Elderly Sexual Activity And Health Health And Social Care Essay

Elderly Sexual Activity And Health Health And Social Care Essay As Lindau et al. (2003) point out, sexuality involves the forming of a partnership and pertains to the behaviors, attitudes, function and activity of sexually active individuals. Sexual activity has been associated with health (Addis, Van Den Eeden and Wassel-Fyr, 2006; Laumann, Nicolosi and Glasser, 2005), and ailment and disease might significantly impair sexual health (Schover, 2000). Elderly people are recipients of a wide array of devices and medications which aim at treating problems of a sexual nature. While the demand for services and medication pertaining to sexual health is increasing, nevertheless not much is known about the sexual behavior of adults over 65 years of age. In the developed countries, the chronological age of 65 years old is largely accepted as a cut-off point for classification of a person as older or elderly. While common definitions of the third age such as this are indeed practically utilized, there exists no general consensus as to the point in time when one actually becomes old. Usually, the time in life when one becomes eligible for a pension is adopted as indicative of old age. The United Nations do not use a standardized criterion, but nevertheless agrees to 60+ years as referring to the elderly (WHO, 2010). A definition of ageing is provided by Gorman (2000): ageing is a highly predetermined biological process which eludes human control. At the same time, ageing is defined in a constructivist world, where different societies assign different meanings to old age. Chronological age is seen as most important in developed countries. The age between 60 and 65 is taken to signify the onset of old age. By contrast, in many developing countries, age by years bears little relationship to the definition of old age. In such countries, the meaning of old age may depend instead on the roles that are been assigned to older people, or even on the loss of previously-held roles, which may come as a result of natural physical decline. In sum, while the developed world defines old age in a manner highly chronological, the same is often not true for developing countries, where people start to be perceived as elderly when their active role involvement is no longer possible (Gorman, 2000). According to a definition by the World Health Organization (2001), sexuality is a natural part of human development through every phase of life and includes physical, psychological, and social components (p. 13). Another definition of sexuality provided by Rheaume and Mitty (2008) states that sexuality is a core dimension of life that incorporates notions, beliefs, facts, fantasies, rituals, attitudes, values, and rights with regard to gender identity and role, sexual acts and orientation, and aspects of pleasure, intimacy, and reproduction and involves biological, psychological, social, economic, religious, spiritual and cultural components (p. 342). Health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (WHO, 2001, p. 8). In turn, sexual health implies a positive approach to human sexuality and is therefore an essential component of reproductive health. It includes the integration of somatic, emotional, intellectual, and social aspects of an individual in ways which positively enrich and enhance personality, communication, love and human relationships (p. 13). Sexual health, not unlike physical health, is viewed as a state of well-being where there is an expectation of pleasurable experiences without the intrusion of negative feelings such as shame, fear, pressure or violence. In keeping with this definition, Calamidas (1997) suggests that home or assisted-living nurses can play a crucial role in the quality of elderly peoples life through helping them attain and preserve a positive outlook toward the expression of their individual sexuality. Historically, a large proportion of todays elderly people grew up and lived during a time when social norms were both conservative and gender-biased. Broadly speaking, sexual intercourse was considered as a pleasurable experience primarily for the men while women were thereby expected to sexually satisfy their husbands and to make babies (Hajjar and Kamel, 2003). People that today are over 70 years old may have actually missed the sexual revolution of the 1960s in the context and social conditions under which it took place, since they were already married and engrossed in their work and family life. This interesting analysis by Hajjar and Kamel (2003) proceeds to argue that the challenges to intimacy and sexuality faced by that age group may be partly due to the adoption of a rather conservative set of values and beliefs about sexuality, a limited availability and access to knowledge on sexuality, and a lack of feeling comfortable with their sexuality. Rheaume and Mitty (2008) suggest that nowadays the traditional stereotypes regarding ageing, intimacy and sexuality are being reexamined; that is, the point of view is promoted that a desire for intimacy and for sexual contact does not have to cease at any point during the lifetime. Knowledge on the sexual activity of the elderly people however is far from complete, especially within a cross-cultural context as well as with reference to educational and financial status. In this light, the generalizability of research findings in this area is rather hindered. Oftentimes, this means that health professionals may be left somewhat in the dark concerning the wants and needs of older adults as to their sexuality (Rheaume and Mitty, 2008, p. 342). Sexuality of the Elderly The National Social Life, Health and Aging Project (NSHAP) has taken up the task of gathering data on the sexual activity, behaviors and problems of elderly people (Lindau et al., 2007). The findings of the national American sample of NSHAP show that while sexual activity tends to decrease with age, most older adults continue to enjoy intimate marital or other relationships, as well as consider their sexuality an important aspect of life. The majority of individuals aged 57 to 85 years old, and approximately one in three of individuals aged between 75 85 years old were active sexually. Even in their 80s or 90s, the elderly may practice sex and/or masturbation (Lindau et al., 2007). There is evidence to suggest that some men and women retain their sexual desire and partnership during the whole of their life (Addis et al., 2006; AARP, 1999; Nicolosi, Laumann and Glasser, 2004; Bacon et al., 2003). Some of these studies however have relied on relatively small sample sizes, and have utilized non-random sampling methods. Taking into consideration the above criticisms, Lindau et al.s (2007) study examined the occurrence of sexual activity in sexually active participants and did not find significantly decrease with old age. At the same time, the levels of reported sexual activity in respondents between 60 and 74 years old were comparable to the levels reported by adults from 18 to 59 years old, in a wide US survey (Laumann et al., 1994). Adults aged 65 years and over can retain an active and satisfying sexual life throughout their years (WHO, 2002). Frequent sexual activity is commonly reported after middle age (Janus and Janus, 2003). In the survey of the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP, 1999) including 1384 elderly individuals, although sexual activity was reported as being pleasurable, no overarching agreement was reached as to the importance of sex toward maintaining a good relationship. The research by AARP (1999) also found that old adults who have partners tend to feel that a fulfilling sexual relationship is important, as opposed to old adults with no partners. Men older than 75 were more likely to have a spouse or partner and appeared to hold more favorable attitudes or more interest towards sex than did women of the same age. Men, whether they had a partner or not, reported a higher frequency of thoughts, feelings and fantasies related to sex than generally did women. Steinke et al.s (2008) research with healthy elderly people reported that the lesser health restrictions of the elderly helped them to retain their sexual activity throughout the course of their lives. Women in their third age usually demonstrate a larger diminution of sexual activity with time than do same-aged men (Lindau et al., 2007). According to the results of a multinational survey of persons 40 to 80 years of age (Laumann, Paik and Glasser, 2006), women tend to think of sex as a less important facet of life than do men, and they also tend to report more absence of pleasure from it. The determination of the dynamics that are involved in sexual satisfaction are of particular importance here (Carpenter, Nathanson and Kim, 2009). Henderson-King and Veroff (1994) and Sprecher (2002) have found that sexual satisfaction enhances the individuals well-being, while it promotes the stability of a marriage and of other personal relationships. A better knowledge of the factors that promote and lessen sexual satisfaction may help in the development of better-suited clinical and policy interventions against sexual problems (Bancroft, 2002). As populations age, a sound understanding of sexual activity in elderly people is becoming more and more relevant; people now enjoy longer and healthier lives, attitudes toward sexuality are being transformed and the importance of a fulfilling sexual life toward the attainment of personal happiness is being recognized (Seidman, 1991; Calasanti Slevin, 2001). Quality of life A number of authors have suggested that doctors and policy-makers are becoming more and more aware of the importance of human sexuality for health and for good quality of life across the life span (Lindau et al., 2007; Satcher, 2001; WHO, 2002). In his description of the cross-cultural study of the World Health Organization, Quality of Life/Older Adults (including such topics as autonomy, activity, functionality, intimacy, relationships, socialization, death, and dying, Robinson (2007) states that sexuality, health status and personal relationships were all significantly related to quality of life. Many studies have found that sexual activity bears a significant relationship to longevity and positive health outcomes (Palmore, 1982; Davey Smith, Frankel and Yarnell, 1997; Onder et al., 2003). Sexual problems Since the beginning of the 21st century new and considerable attention has been paid to the sexuality of the elderly as a result of the creation of drugs that treat erectile dysfunction. Male erectile dysfunction, if treated effectively, can prolong the active sex life of the elderly of both genders throughout life (Lindau, 2010). As Cambois, Robine and Hayward (2001) point out, in many countries sexual problems comprise a major issue for elderly people; in the United States, approximately one in two 57 to 85 year olds who are sexually active report that they have at least one sexual predicament, and one in three mention at least two such afflictions. Accordingly, the majority of the elderly people in Lindau et al.s (2007) study did report pestering problems of a sexual nature, and approximately one in four sexually active elderly participants of both genders refrained from sexual intercourse as a result of a sexual problem subject to therapeutic intervention. During the transition to old age, changes in physiology can impair the sexual responsiveness of elderly women and men, while they may affect, either negatively or positively, their sexual function (Bachmann and Leiblum, 2004; Rosen et al., 2005). Different aspects of sexuality had been found to have a negative correlation with poor health and age (Laumann et al., 2005; Schover, 2000; Laumann, Paik and Rosen, 1999; Camacho and Reyes-Ortiz, 2005). Isselbacher et al. (1994) and Rosen et al. (2005) state that problems of a sexual nature may act as precursors or as epiphenomena to significant infections or diseases such as diabetes or cancer. Sexual problems that go unnoticed and/or untreated may lead to or co-occur with depression and social withdrawal (Nicolosi et al., 2004; Morley and Tariq, 2003, Araujo et al., 1998). Medication prescribed to the elderly may have an adverse effect on sexual life (Finger, Lund and Slagle, 1997); even medication which treats sexual problems may have adv erse health effects (Lindau et al., 2006; Gott, Hinchliff and Galena, 2004). Steinke et al. (2008) also found that elderly participants who were not active sexually showed a worsening of sexual self-concept, self-efficacy, and satisfaction. In Konstam, Moser and De Jongs (2005) research, a heightened self-efficacy was demonstrated to improve on both sexual function and emotional functioning, not excluding depression. Health and sexuality Lindau et al.s (2007) study found sexual activity to be positively related to the physical health of the elderly, particularly in elderly men. In general, healthy individuals of all ages were more likely to engage in marital or other intimate relationships and to be more sexually active. Furthermore, physical health was found to be related to different facets of sexual function, as well as sexual problems, regardless of age; similar findings have been reported by other researchers (Laumann et al., 1999; Bacon et al., 2003). It is advisable then that, when specific conditions apply, elderly people who have health problems or who are to receive treatment which may influence their sexual functioning may need to be evaluated based on their health status instead of their age (Laumann et al., 2005). In a representative national analysis, Lindau (2010) assessed the relationship between sexuality, as measured per sexual activity and quality of sex life, and global self-reported physical health in mature and elderly adults. Lindau (2010) found that especially for older women, self-rated health was closely related to having a partner. Overall, participants who were of very good or excellent physical health were about 1.7 times more likely to show an interest in sex than did participants of less than good health. As Lindau (2010) puts it, when compared to women, men tend to spend significantly more of their life being sexually active but, at the same time, miss out on significantly more years of sexual activity as a consequence of less than good health. This strong relationship between mens health and expected duration of a sexually active life may be partly attributable to chronic diseases but also to treatment received for erectile dysfunction (Westlake et al., 1999; Solomon, Man and Jackson, 2003; Burke et al., 2007). The United Nations (2007) have proposed that in the developed and developing nations, a projection of peoples sexual activity as they become older can be useful in predicting health needs and resources, sexual function-related services, the recovery from sexual dysfunction due to illness, as well as the treatment for commonly occurring health conditions in the third age. At the same time, the wish to prolong the duration of their sexual life can modify older peoples important health behaviors; mature adults may for example quit smoking or take their medication more seriously if they expect that their action will promote a lengthy and fulfilling sexual life (United Nations, 2007). ΒΠ¹ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ²ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ »ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¹ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¿ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ³Ãƒ Ã‚ ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ±Ãƒ Ã¢â‚¬  ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¯ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ± Addis IB, Van Den Eeden SK, Wassel-Fyr CL, et al. Sexual activity and function in middle-aged and older women. Obstet Gynecol 2006;107:755-64. American Association of Retired Persons. Modern maturity. Sexuality study. Washington DC: AARP; 1999. Araujo AB, Durante R, Feldman HA, Goldstein I, McKinlay JB. The relationship between depressive symptoms and male erectile dysfunction: cross-sectional results from the Massachusetts Male Aging Study. Psychosom Med 1998;60:458-65. Araujo AB, Mohr BA, McKinlay JB. Changes in sexual function in middle-aged and older men: longitudinal data from the Massachusetts Male Aging Study. J Am Geriatr Soc 2004;52:1502-9. Bachmann GA, Leiblum SR. The impact of hormones on menopausal sexuality: a literature review. Menopause 2004; 11:120-30. Bacon CG, Mittleman MA, Kawachi I, Giovannucci E, Glassser DB, Rimm EB. Sexual function in men older than 50 years of age: results from the Health Professionals Follow-up Study. Ann Intern Med 2003;139:161-8. Bancroft, J. (2002). The medicalization of female sexual dysfunction: The need for caution. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 31, 451-455. Burke JP, Jacobson DJ, McGree ME, Nehra A, Roberts RO, Girman CJ, et al. Diabetes and sexual dysfunction: results from the Olmsted County study of urinary symptoms and health status among men. J Urol 2007;177:1438-42. Calamidas EG. Promoting health sexuality among older adults: educational challenges for health professionals. J Sex Educ Ther 1997;22:45-9. Calasanti, T. M., Slevin, K. F. (2001). Gender, social inequalities, and aging. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press. Camacho ME, Reyes-Ortiz CA. Sexual dysfunction in the elderly: age or disease? Int J Impot Res 2005;17:Suppl 1:S52-S56. Cambois E, Robine JM, Hayward MD. Social inequalities in disability-free life expectancy in the French male population, 1980-1991. Demography 2001;38:513-24. Davey Smith G, Frankel S, Yarnell J. Sex and death: are they related? Findings from the Caerphilly Cohort Study. BMJ 1997;315:1641-4. Finger WW, Lund M, Slagle MA. Medications that may contribute to sexual disorders: a guide to assessment and treatment in family practice. J Fam Pract 1997; 44:33-43. Gorman M. Development and the rights of older people. In: Randel J, et al., eds. The ageing and development report: poverty, independence and the worlds older people. London, Earthscan Publications Ltd.,1999:3-21. Gott M, Hinchliff S, Galena E. General practitioner attitudes to discussing sexual health issues with older people. Soc Sci Med 2004;58:2093-103. Hajjar RR, Kamel HK. Sexuality in the nursing home, part 1: attitudes and barriers to sexual expression. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2003;4:152-6. Henderson-King, D. H., Veroff, J. (1994). Sexual satisfaction and marital well-being in the first years of marriage. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 11, 509-534. Isselbacher KJ, Martin JB, Braunwald E, Fauci AS, Wilson JD, Kasper DL, eds. Harrisons principles of internal medicine. 13th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994:262. Janus SC, Janus CL. The Janus report on sexual behavior. 1993. Cited in M. Wallace. Sexuality and aging in longterm care. Ann Long-Term Care 2003;11:53-9. Konstam V, Moser D, De Jong M. Depression and anxiety in heart failure. J Card Fail 2005;11:455-63. Laumann EO, Gagnon JH, Michael RT, Michaels S. The social organization of sexuality: sexual practices in the United States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994:88. Laumann EO, Nicolosi A, Glasser DB, et al. Sexual problems among women and men aged 40-80 y: prevalence and correlates identified in the Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors. Int J Impot Res 2005;17:39-57. Laumann EO, Paik A, Glasser DB, et al. A cross-national study of subjective sexual well-being among older women and men: findings from the Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors. Arch Sex Behav 2006;35:145-61. Laumann EO, Paik A, Rosen RC. Sexual dysfunction in the United States: prevalence and predictors. JAMA 1999;281: 537-44. Carpenter LM, Nathanson ÃŽ-CA, Kim YJ. Physical Women, Emotional Men: Gender and Sexual Satisfaction in Midlife. Arch Sex Behav (2009) 38:87-107. Lindau, S.T. (2010). Sex, health, and years of sexually active life gained due to good health: evidence from two US population-based cross sectional surveys of ageing. BMJ, 340, 810 Lindau ST, Laumann EO, Levinson W, Waite LJ. Synthesis of scientific disciplines in pursuit of health: the Interactive Biopsychosocial Model. Perspect Biol Med 2003;46:Suppl 3:S74-S86. Lindau ST, Leitsch SA, Lundberg KL, Jerome J. Older womens attitudes, behavior, and communication about sex and HIV: a community-based study. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2006;15:747-53. Lindau ST, Schumm L, Laumann E, Levinson W, OMuircheartaigh C, Waite L. A study of sexuality and health among older adults in the United States. N Engl J Med 2007;357:762-74. Morley JE, Tariq SH. Sexual dysfunction in older persons. In: Hazzard WR, Blass JP, Halter JB, Ouslander JG, Tinetti ME, eds. Principles of geriatric medicine and gerontology. 5th ed. New York: McGraw- Hill, 2003:1311-23. Nicolosi A, Laumann EO, Glasser DB, et al. Sexual behavior and sexual dysfunctions after age 40: the Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors. Urology 2004;64:991-7. Nicolosi A, Moreira ED Jr, Villa M, Glasser DB. A population study of the association between sexual function, sexual satisfaction and depressive symptoms in men. J Affect Disord 2004;82:235-43. Onder G, Penninx B, Guralnik JM, Jones H, Fried LP, Pahor M, et al. Sexual satisfaction and risk of disability in older women. J Clin Psychiatry 2003;64:1177-82. Palmore EB. Predictors of the longevity difference: a 25-year follow-up. Gerontologist 1982;22:513-8. Rheaume, C., and Mitty, E. (2008). Sexuality and intimacy in older adults. Geriatric Nursing, 29, 342-349. Robinson JG, Mohlzan AE. Sexuality and quality of life. J Gerontol Nurs 2007;33:19-27. Rosen RC, Wing R, Schneider S, Gendrano N. Epidemiology of erectile dysfunction: the role of medical comorbidities and lifestyle factors. Urol Clin North Am 2005;32:403-17. Satcher D. The surgeon generals call to action to promote sexual health and responsible sexual behaviour. US Department of Health and Human Services, 2001. Schover LR. Sexual problems in chronic illness. In: Leiblum SR, Rosen RC, eds. Principles and practice of sex therapy. New York: Guilford, 2000:398-422. Seidman, S. (1991). Romantic longings: Love in America, 1830-1980. New York: Routledge. Solomon H, Man JW, Jackson G. Erectile dysfunction and the cardiovascular patient: endothelial dysfunction is the common denominator. Heart 2003;89:251-3. Sprecher, S. (2002). Sexual satisfaction in premarital relationships: Associations with satisfaction, love, commitment, and stability. Journal of Sex Research, 39, 190-197. Steinke, E.E., Wright, D.W., Chung, M.L., and Moser, D.K. (2008). Sexual self-concept, anxiety, and self-efficacy predict sexual activity in heart failure and healthy elders. Heart Lung, 37, 323-333. United Nations. World population ageing 2007. UN, 2007. Westlake C, Dracup K, Walden JA, Fonarow G. Sexuality of patients with advanced heart failure and their spouses or partners. J Heart Lung Transplant 1999;18:1133-8. World Health Organization (2001). Definitions and indicators in family planning, maternal child health and reproductive health used in the WHO regional office for Europe. Reproductive, Maternal and Child Health European Regional Office. Revised March 1999 January 2001. Accessed on 25 April 2010 at: http://www.euro.who.int/document/e68459.pdf World Health Organization. Defining sexual health: report of a technical consultation on sexual health, 28-31 January 2002. Geneva, 2002. www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/gender_rights/defining_sexual_health/en/index.html. World Health Organization (2010). Definition of an older or elderly person: proposed working definition of an older person in Africa for the MDS Project. Accessed on 25 April 2010 at: http://www.who.int/healthinfo/survey/ageingdefnolder/en/index.html.

Media Violence and the Captive Audience :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

The media, including television programming, cartoons, film, the news, as well as literature and magazines, is a very powerful and pervasive medium for expression. It can reach a large number of people and convey ideas, cultural norms, stereotypic roles, power relationships, ethics, and values. Through these messages, the mass media may have a strong influence on individual behavior, views, and values, as well as in shaping national character and culture. Although there is a great potential for the media to have a positive and affirming effect on the public and society at large, there may be important negative consequences when the messages conveyed are harmful, destructive, or violent. Many psychologists have studied the effect of the media on an individual’s behavior and beliefs about the world. There have been over 1000 studies which confirm the link that violence portrayed through the media can influence the level of aggression in the behavioral patterns of children and adults (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2001). The observed effects include, increased aggressiveness and anti-social behavior towards others, an increased fear of becoming a victim or target of aggressive behavior, becoming less sensitive to violence and victims of violent acts, and concurrently desiring to watch more violence on television and in real-life (A.A.P. 2001). According to John Murray of Kansas State University, there are three main avenues of effects: direct effects, desensitization, and the Mean World Syndrome (Murray, 1995, p. 10). The direct effects of observing violence on television include an increase in an individual’s level of aggressive behavior, and a tendenc y to develop favorable attitudes and values about using violence to solve conflicts and to get one’s way. As a result of exposure to violence in the media, the audience may become desensitized to violence, pain, and suffering both on television and in the world. The individual may also come to tolerate higher levels of aggression in society, in personal behavior, or in interpersonal interactions. The third effect is known as the Mean World Syndrome, which theorizes that as a result of the amount of violence seen on television and also the context and social perspective portrayed through the media, certain individuals develop a belief that the world is a bad and dangerous place, and begin to fear violence and victimization in real life (A.A.P. 2001). The effect of the media on young children is especially salient. Young children often learn how to act and behave from what they observe at home, from the adults and older peers they come in contact with, and from what they see on television.

The Republican Party Essay -- American Government, Politics

This research paper aims to expose the Republican Party's transition from having a pro-minority reputation to currently having a reputation of being "against" racial minorities. In order to properly investigate this contrast, the emergence of the Republican Party and how it gained a negative reputation towards minorities will be researched. This paper utilizes statistics on racial minority support of the Republican Party and voting patterns, scholarly contributions that explain the agenda of the publican Party, and historical evidence documenting the emergence of the Republican Party. This information will be used to convince readers that the Republican Party is not aligned with its current reputation of having prejudice towards racial minorities and will instead prove that it obtains ideals that greatly benefit minorities. Introduction 1854 marked the beginning of an age where the Republican Party would soon play a major role in freeing slaves in America due to the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. 1964 marked a time in which the Republican Party failed to support civil rights through not publicly supporting the Civil Rights Act of 1964. America's most recent 2008 presidential election marked a time in which the Republican Party fought to gain the support of various racial minority groups but failed due to Barack Obama's strong proposals aimed towards the desires of the working class and racial minority groups. How did the Republican Party's reputation transition from being anti-slavery to discouraging civil rights? How can the Republican Party continue to fail in gaining the trust of minorities though its foundational ideals greatly benefit racial minority groups? These are all questions that will be answered in this researc... ...that do not visibly favor the requests of racial minorities. He asserts that parties need to instead focus on the foundations of democracy in order to better relate to minorities to subsequently create authentic appeal (327-9). Cox (1997) agrees and seeks to persuade Americans that the electoral process is flawed in the sense that votes are not truly providing Americans with the ability to see positive and sustainable change. In order to "make votes count," racial minorities need to present debate topics and pressure parties to replicate the desires of the majority so that when a politician is running for office they can clearly indicate the desired changes proposed (272-5). These scholars affirm that the Republican Party's inability to bring sustainable change to racial minorities through proper representation prolongs the reputation of being racially prejudiced.

Memes Shaping the Blogosphere :: Memetics Science Genes Brain Essays

Memes Shaping the Blogosphere The science of memetics – the scientific and systematic study of memes and their propagation – is not quite considered a science yet. People will concede that memes are a key factor in cultural evolution, but they are too difficult to track, too unpredictable to study closely. Unless we "someday discover a striking identity between brain structures storing the same information, allowing us to identify memes syntactically" (Dennett 354), it would seem that there is little hope for a science of memetics. How can we explore and apply memetics to culture if we cannot isolate and investigate the memes themselves, and their behaviors and effects? While memes' motion and influence through culture at large is perhaps impossible to analyze using a precise methodology, memes' virus-like spread on the internet – most notably throughout the so-called "blogosphere" – is easier to follow. Consequently, it is also much easier to highlight how memes have directed the evolution of the "blogosphere," and, indeed, of blogging and internet itself. Richard Dawkins, who is credited with coining the term "meme," defines it as: ...a unit of cultural transmission, or a unit of imitation... Just as genes propagate themselves in the gene pool by leaping from body to body via sperm or eggs, so memes propagate themselves in the meme pool by leaping from brain to brain via a process which, in the broad sense, can be called imitation (Dennett 344-5). Since the blogosphere can be defined as the internet space populated by weblogs, memes travel through it not from brain to brain, but from page to page, leaving a trail that can be monitored and analyzed. Memes have been an important part of the blogging world since at least 2001, when "Best Meme" first appeared as a category in The Bloggies, the annual Oscars of weblogging. The winner in the "Best Meme" category that year was "A Day Without Weblogs," which suggested that each December 1st, people use their weblogs to link to information and resources about AIDS, in memory of those who had died. "A Day Without Weblogs" had in fact begun with only fifty blogs in 1999, but by 2001, over 1,000 webloggers participated (Link and Think, 2003). The success of "A Day Without Weblogs" was one of the first demonstrations of the power and reach of the blogging community. The success of the project helped bring crucial attention to a serious issue, and mobilized many casual web surfers to donate time and money to the cause. Memes Shaping the Blogosphere :: Memetics Science Genes Brain Essays Memes Shaping the Blogosphere The science of memetics – the scientific and systematic study of memes and their propagation – is not quite considered a science yet. People will concede that memes are a key factor in cultural evolution, but they are too difficult to track, too unpredictable to study closely. Unless we "someday discover a striking identity between brain structures storing the same information, allowing us to identify memes syntactically" (Dennett 354), it would seem that there is little hope for a science of memetics. How can we explore and apply memetics to culture if we cannot isolate and investigate the memes themselves, and their behaviors and effects? While memes' motion and influence through culture at large is perhaps impossible to analyze using a precise methodology, memes' virus-like spread on the internet – most notably throughout the so-called "blogosphere" – is easier to follow. Consequently, it is also much easier to highlight how memes have directed the evolution of the "blogosphere," and, indeed, of blogging and internet itself. Richard Dawkins, who is credited with coining the term "meme," defines it as: ...a unit of cultural transmission, or a unit of imitation... Just as genes propagate themselves in the gene pool by leaping from body to body via sperm or eggs, so memes propagate themselves in the meme pool by leaping from brain to brain via a process which, in the broad sense, can be called imitation (Dennett 344-5). Since the blogosphere can be defined as the internet space populated by weblogs, memes travel through it not from brain to brain, but from page to page, leaving a trail that can be monitored and analyzed. Memes have been an important part of the blogging world since at least 2001, when "Best Meme" first appeared as a category in The Bloggies, the annual Oscars of weblogging. The winner in the "Best Meme" category that year was "A Day Without Weblogs," which suggested that each December 1st, people use their weblogs to link to information and resources about AIDS, in memory of those who had died. "A Day Without Weblogs" had in fact begun with only fifty blogs in 1999, but by 2001, over 1,000 webloggers participated (Link and Think, 2003). The success of "A Day Without Weblogs" was one of the first demonstrations of the power and reach of the blogging community. The success of the project helped bring crucial attention to a serious issue, and mobilized many casual web surfers to donate time and money to the cause.

HIV AIDS Older Adults Health And Social Care Essay

Human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) is a virus that kills the immune system ‘s cells, taking to a Immunodeficiency syndrome ( AIDS ) , which is when the immune system is weakened to the point where an single gets certain types of life-threatening diseases, infections, and malignant neoplastic diseases. HIV infection is frequently inapparent and can take every bit small as a few hebdomads to look as minor flu-like symptoms and ten old ages for more terrible symptoms, which may include concern, chronic cough, diarrhoea, conceited secretory organs, deficiency of energy, loss of appetency and weight loss, frequent febrilities and workout suits, frequent barm infections, tegument roseolas, pelvic and abdominal spasms, sores on certain parts of your organic structure, and short-run memory loss. Older grownups, aged 50 and older, may non detect these HIV symptoms because they may tie in them with normal aging ( HIV, AIDS, and Older Adults, n.d. ) . As people age, some ripening procedures are similar to the consequence of chronic HIV on the organic structure. Apoptosis, the natural mechanism for the organic structure to acquire rid of weak or damaged cells, can take to the break of the immune system, which can besides take to malignant neoplastic diseases ; this is occurs more frequently in older people with HIV. Older grownups with HIV besides experience immunosenescence, besides called immunologic ripening or exhaustion of T-cells, which causes a destructive high T-cell turnover and may be portion of premature ripening of the immune system ( Aging and HIV, 2010 ) . Anyone is at hazard of acquiring HIV/AIDS, which may be due to many different grounds. Peoples can acquire HIV from holding without utilizing rubbers if their sex spouse is HIV positive ; the virus would go through from the spouse to them through the exchange of organic structure fluids, including blood, seeds, vaginal fluid, by any gap such as a tear or cut in the liner of the vagina, vulva, phallus, rectum, or oral cavity. Peoples are besides at hazard if they do non cognize their spouse ‘s sexual and drug history ; they should inquire themselves if their spouse has been tested for HIV, how many different sex spouses they have had, and if they use any drug injections. Another hazard factor is if a individual injects drugs and portion acerate leafs or panpipes with other people ; this may non merely be applicable to drug users, other people, such as those with diabetes who inject insulin or pull blood to prove for glucose degrees, might portion acerate leafs. In add-on, if a individual has had a blood transfusion between 1978 and 1985 or in a underdeveloped state at any clip, he or she might be besides at hazard of undertaking HIV. However, the virus can non be contracted from insouciant contact, such as agitating custodies or caressing, sharing a drink or being sneezed on by a HIV positive individual, donating blood, and mosquito bites . Using public telephone, imbibing fountain, public public toilets, swimming pool, Jacuzzi, or hot bath besides does non set one at hazard ( HIV, AIDS, and Older Adults, n.d. ) . Peoples frequently believe that older grownups, 50 and older, are non at hazard for acquiring HIV because they do non hold sex, which besides contributes to the addition rate of among people in this age scope. However, surveies from the early 1990s provided informations that proved there is no alteration in sexual desire after the age of 50 and experts report that more than half of people over 50 are holding sex a couple times each month. However, older grownups know less about safe sex patterns late adolescents and immature grownups in their early mid-twentiess, which explains portion of the growing in the HIV population ( Cichocki, 2007 ) . HIV among grownups over 50 is nil new ; since the early 80 ‘s, HIV in individuals older grownups have accounted for about 10 per centum of all instances. Back in the yearss, HIV was chiefly transmitted by blood among the senior population, but today, heterosexual contact and needle sharing among IV drug users over 50 are the chief causes o f HIV among them ( Cichocki, 2007 ) . In add-on to cognize less about safe sex and HIV than the younger crowd, older grownups are less likely to speak about their sex life, are frequently neglected by healthcare workers and pedagogues, in footings of HIV/AIDS instruction and bar, and frequently non asked about their sex life or drug usage by physicians. It is a batch harder for physicians to detect HIV symptoms in an older grownup ( HIV, AIDS, and Older Adults, n.d. ) . Because older grownups may misidentify HIV/AIDS symptoms for the achings and strivings of normal aging, they are less likely to acquire tested for HIV/AIDS than younger people. In add-on, they may be embarrassed, ashamed, and fearful of being tested for HIV/AIDS, which is frequently considered a disease connected with holding sex and injecting drugs, which besides causes them to populate in isolation and to hold more terrible depression. For this ground, people age 50 and over may hold had HIV for old ages before being tested and by the clip they are diagnosed, the virus may already be in its most advanced phase. Older grownups who HIV most of the clip make non populate every bit long as immature people who have it. Many older people who have HIV/AIDS live in isolation because they are afraid to state household and friends about their unwellness. HIV/AIDS besides affects older grownups in another manner. Young people with HIV/AIDS can normally turn to their parents and grandparents f or fiscal support and nursing attention, but many older people have cared for their ain HIV positive kids and so for their orphaned and sometimes HIV positive grandchildren ; this can be mentally, physically, and financially run outing, particularly if the individual is HIV positive because they require more attending and attention ( HIV, AIDS, and Older Adults, n.d. ) . There may besides be a connexion between HIV and climacteric. Womans who are menopausal are no longer worried about acquiring pregnant and therefore may be less likely to utilize a rubber and pattern safe sex. Some menopausal adult females besides have vaginal waterlessness and cutting, intending they are more likely to hold little cryings and scratchs during sexual intercourse, which can set them at greater hazard for undertaking HIV. In add-on, due to the fact that adult females may populate longer than work forces and the lifting rate of divorce, there is an addition figure of widowed, divorced, or detached adult females get downing to day of the month ; since many of them do non understand how HIV is spread, they are at hazard of HIV transmittal ( HIV, AIDS, and Older Adults, n.d. ) . For many decennaries bar plans have been largely created for immature people ; merely a smattering has been aimed at older grownups. Simply seting images of old people on a posting or circular stating things such as stop AIDSs, wear a rubber, or pattern safe sex, is non plenty to forestall HIV transmittal among older grownups ; it is of import to understand the issue of aging and get bying with the challenges HIV will give. Harmonizing to Ory, Zablotsky and Crystal ( 1998 ) , in order to place older grownups ‘ AIDS-related hazards behaviours, and develop educational attacks and preventative schemes for modifying any hazardous behaviour, dedicated attempt is needed ( HIV/AIDS & A ; Older Adults, n.d. ) . There are some challenges to HIV/AIDS bar for older grownups. The first challenge is that older grownups are less likely to follow HIV bar schemes than immature grownups. HIV/AIDS is besides seldom discussed among people of the same community. In add-on, older grownups are non suspected of drug usage, which is a large error because older grownups are merely like everybody else and do the same things as everybody else. Many older grownups frequently show marks of hazardous sexual behaviours, do non utilize protection, usage IV drugs and portion acerate leafs. They besides find themselves dating once more because they might be a window, separated, or divorced, and holding sex without protection. Carolyn is an old adult female who got married three times and contracted HIV, from the drug trader who was populating her, by holding unprotected sex and sharing acerate leaf for drugs injections. She did non cognize about the virus until the drug trader who was live togethering with her got h ospitalized and her girl found out from the physician that he was deceasing from HIV and prohibited Carolyn from seeing her grandchildren as a consequence ( HIV/AIDS & A ; Older Adults, n.d. ) . Furthermore, there is grounds that some HIV infected older grownups have gotten it through sexual dealingss with the same gender. Pat is a HIV positive older grownup who has ever known he was homosexual since he was immature ; he was given four months to populate when he was diagnosed but has learned to get by with the disease with the support of his household. Older grownups besides do non hold proving and instruction attempts directed to them ( HIV/AIDS & A ; Older Adults, n.d. ) . Assorted factors should be considered in bar plans for older grownups. The best plans to work are normally those that are intensive. They should emphasize on alteration motive, attitudes, behavioural accomplishments, self-management schemes, and personal hazard decrease problem-solving. A good plan should besides be carefully made harmonizing to the cultural, lifestyle, relationship and normative beliefs and values of clients.A In add-on, gender, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, and relationship values of clientsA are factors that affect the aims, content, and issues that must be addressed during the HIV bar plan. It is really of import to non presume that patients are non at hazard, to give bar messages to patients ( they should be repeated at regular intervals ) , to learn other professionals to increase consciousness of the hazard factors to older grownups and work with them to inform the older grownup community. HIV infection should besides be tested when there are unexplained symptoms ( HIV/AIDS & A ; Older Adults, n.d. ) . In order to forestall HIV transmittal and inform older grownups, it is besides of import to be cognizant of the job ; older grownups and their health care suppliers are most of the clip non cognizant of the job. In 1997, Skiest and Keiser did a study of primary attention doctors ‘ beliefs, patterns, and cognition that pointed out many concerns. One of the concerns was that 69.7 % of the doctors said that grownups, 50 old ages and over, seldom or ne'er asked inquiries refering HIV or AIDS. 60.8 % besides said that they seldom or ne'er discussed HIV/AIDS with their patients who are 50 old ages and older, and 67.5 % of them seldom or ne'er discussed hazard factor decrease. Some of them besides said that they are more likely to ne'er inquire their older patients over 50 than their younger 1s under 30 about HIV hazard factors. In add-on, doctors did non rank the most prevailing hazard factors in patients over 50 in the right order, being: ( 1 ) male-male sex, ( 2 ) endovenous drug u sage, ( 3 ) blood transfusion, and ( 4 ) heterosexual sex. Physicians 40 and older were more likely to cognize the most prevailing hazard factor of HIV for older grownups. Family practicians were more likely toA seldom or ne'er askA older patients about hazard factors for HIV than other doctors. The study showed that primary attention doctors do non cognize plenty about HIV/AIDS hazard factors in older patients and do non speak enough about HIV and AIDS with older patients ( HIV/AIDS & A ; Older Adults, n.d. ) . It is of import to speak to older grownups about the hazards of HIV/AIDS and educate them on bar. Older people frequently open up and discourse sensitive affairs, including gender, when they feel that it is of import for their wellness or the wellness of their loved ones.A However, some may be embarrassed to uncover that they are still sexually active at their age because society expects them non to be.A Those who do drugs injections may besides experience shame from making something illegal.A Harmonizing to Hendersen et Al, older adult females need instruction on reenforcing the possibility of HIV transmittal by heterosexual intercourse, clear uping misperceptions about transmittal, and stressing the effectivity and usage of rubbers in bar. Older grownups besides should be informed about proving ; they need to cognize when to be tested and that they can be treated. Prevention messages should besides be repeated so that they can be reinforced. Giving messages one time is non plenty ; it may increase older grownups ‘ cognition about HIV/AIDS but it will non be adequate to alter any hazardous behaviours the some older grownups have. Older grownups should besides be helped in developing the accomplishments to forestall infection.A A They may necessitate to be taught how to decently utilize a rubber and those who use injection drug may non recognize the dangers of needle sharing. Older grownups are more familiar with the usage of rubbers in gestation bar, which is a concern they no longer hold, and do non hold every bit much cognition of HIV bar by the usage of rubbers. Merely 13 % of older adult females inA Henderson et Al ( 2004 ) survey knew the efficiency of rubbers in forestalling HIV transmittal ; non cognizing much about how good condom works in HIV bar may take to less usage of it. In add-on, older work forces may hold erectile troubles worsened by rubber usage, which would do them non utilize condoms.A It is besides of import to speak to HIV positive older grownups because they can distribute the disease ( HIV/AIDS & A ; Older Adults, n.d. ) . Furthermore, it is a good thing to acquire in touch with other people who besides work with older grownups and those specialized in HIV/AIDS. It is better to work every bit group because it would increase consciousness, resources, and available information. Working with public wellness pedagogues will besides give more information about community instruction ; older grownups need to be able to reach services that can help them. Older grownups, particularly those who are HIV positive, will most likely need the specialised attention of an infective disease ( ID ) doctor ; A A other wellness attention professionals, such as gerontologists, societal workers, and instance directors most of the clip will besides necessitate to acquire involved as the disease progresses.A As a consequence of these professionals working together, attention will be better coordinated and all other demands of the older grownup patient will be met. However, sometime other professionals may non understand the ha zard of HIV infection for older grownups or may believe the myths that older grownups are non involved in drugs or are sexually active. In this instance, one should learn them so that they can be portion of the bar plan ( HIV/AIDS & A ; Older Adults, n.d. ) . Dedication is needed to place HIV/AIDS hazard factors and develop a good educational and preventative plan. All messages must be made for the older population ; those made the younger crowd may non make older grownups because they will experience as though it does n't concern them. Older grownups will non utilize rubbers unless there are given a ground to make so. If the plan is made to aim the older population, it is more likely to increase their cognition on HIV/AIDS. It is besides a good thing to hold some plans and messages directed to different groups of older grownups. One chief group is homosexual males ; they are at hazard due to male-to-male sexual dealingss being the taking manner of transmittal of HIV/AIDS in older grownups. Another of import group is heterosexual adult females ; a turning per centum of septic adult females are African American. Womans are a large part of HIV infected aged patients and African American adult females populating in a rural scene are more aff ected and more likely to be infected. It is disputing to inform them of the hazards because they may non desire to listen, hence integrating the message along with other medical services will assist in making them. In add-on, some messages should be directed to older grownups traveling through different phases of life ; they may be at hazard because of new relationships after separation, divorce, or widowhood. It is besides indispensable to chase away myths about older grownups because even those who work with them could believe in those myths ( HIV/AIDS & A ; Older Adults, n.d. ) . Overall, older grownups are more at hazard for HIV/AIDS due to the weakening of the immune system as people age. Older grownup besides are at a higher hazard of infection because they tend to hold unprotected sex because they are non any longer concern with gestation and some suffer from erectile disfunction, which might impede them from have oning rubbers. The chief cause of HIV/AIDS transmittal in older grownups is male homosexual dealingss and needle sharing. In order to inform older grownups about the hazards of HIV, it is of import to understand the issue and work as a squad with other professionals who work with them. It is besides of import to educate other professionals about HIV hazard for older grownups and chase away myths such as older grownups are non sexually active and do non hold sex. It is besides of import to direct messages to different groups in order to make older grownups more expeditiously and in order for them to larn and retain the information better because it would do them associate better and experience as though it pertain to them.